Faculty of Business Environment and Society Essay - 9

Faculty of Business Environment and Society - Essay Example This level implies a situation whereby a consumer’s personal definition is influenced by many personal possessions. Some of the possession include clothing, cars, jewellery and others. In this case, the clothes, cars and jewellery one uses are a reflection of their own identity. This is the second part of the extended self and involves a consumer’s possession which are regarded as belonging to the family and therefore, they are taken as symbolic of the entire family. Such possession include furnishings and the residence. In this case, this extended self-concept holds that the home we live in is a huge indicator of who we are. This level explains the extended self in terms of the large society in which a consumer lives in. As such, consumers in this case identify themselves with the town, locality or neighbourhood they live in. this level if very important to residents who relate closely in a community such as farm families. This level seeks to explain he association of a consumer with a particular social groupings. In this case, a consumer seeks an attachment to a group as it is viewed as part of their social groups. As such, such social aspects as sport teams, church associations or landmarks form part of that consumer’s extended self. There are a number of theories that try to explain the link between consumer buying behaviour and the concept of extended self. Such theories concentrate on personality and behaviour of the consumer in order to understand their motivation in making consumption decisions. Some of the theories of consumer behaviour theories include the following. This theory forms a framework for explaining why some consumers choose to buy the products they use. The notion is that the consumption behaviour is not a mystery. According to Kotler (2005), this concept can be explained using a Stimulus Response Model whereby the mind is a ‘black-box’ inside the model. The

Purchasing Power Parity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Purchasing Power Parity - Essay Example It states that the country which is having high inflation rate is weak in terms of currency because inflation reduces the real purchasing power of a nation’s currency. It predicts a relationship between the inflation rates of two countries over a specified period and the movement in the exchange rate between their two currencies over the same period which means that the exchange rate of two currencies reflects the effect of inflation rate (Murphy, p.1). Absolute PPP states that the value of 2 currencies changes in contrary proportion to the changes in the ratio of price levels. On the other hand relative, PPP predicts a relationship between the inflation rates of two countries over a specified period and the movement in the exchange rate between their two currencies over the same period. Absolute PPP is based on the law of one price that is tested for a basket of commodities or individual commodities. The relative PPP approximates the change in individual price by change in pr ice indices. Empirical evidence of absolute PPP: An orange costs 3 dollars in country A and the same orange costs 6 dollars in country B. This means 3 dollars in country A equals to 6 dollars in country B. This exchange rate is based on the cost of orange and it is assumed that the cost of orange is same worldwide. Empirical evidence of relative PPP: Japan’s anticipated annual rate of inflation is equal to 6% per year, while the anticipated annual inflation rate for the U.S. is 3%. As an approximation, it is expected that the Japanese yen would devalue at the rate of 4% a year. The whole concept is based on unrealistic assumptions. That’s why forex market does not take into consideration the purchasing power parity. Those assumptions were a basket of goods and services in the CPI is the same in all countries, no transportation cost, and consumptions patterns are the same all over the world.

Modernization Concept Meaning And Relevance Sociology Essay

Modernization Concept Meaning And Relevance Sociology Essay ABSTRACT We live in a changing world and change is inevitable. The use of new technology, tools, adoption of new values and practices in organizations are all aspects of change and modernization. There is, however, a paradox in the attitudes of various generations towards change. The generally urban-ward movement, particularly among the young, has spelled greater independence for them with diminishing parental control and influence on their lives which may pose many undesirable consequences on their behavior. Such changes along with the rapid development in information technology and the spread of mass media play an important role in shaping their behavior. This paper is an attempt to uncover the attitudes of the management students towards change and the various facets of modernization. The sample consists of 120 management students studying in a business school located in the national capital region in India. Attitude towards modernization was measured by using Dr. B.M Mathur Modernization attitude scale which consists of 35 items measuring the five dimensions: Social Mobility; Position of Women; Family Planning; Marriage; and Religion and Superstition. Mean, SD, t-test and correlation were used to analyze the data and conclusions were drawn on the basis of the results. Statistical analysis showed a positive attitude of management students towards different facets of modernization. However, a significant difference was found between female and male students on two dimensions of modernization i.e. social mobility and position of women with female students scoring higher on both the dimensions. Dr. Sombala Ningthoujam is a faculty Member at IBS Gurgaon and can be reached at [emailprotected] Dr. Shalini Khandelwal is a faculty member at IBS Gurgaon and can be reached at [emailprotected] Modernization: Concept, Meaning and Relevance Human society has changed much over the last centuries and this process of modernization has profoundly affected our lives. Modernization is the process of changing the conditions of a society, an organization or a group of people in ways that change the privileges of that group according to modern technology or modern knowledge. There are differences of emphasis with respect to the meaning of modernization due to its relationship with the most contentious concept of development. The transition from the traditional to the modern society can be treated with a primarily negative emphasis in terms of removing institutional obstacles to development, or with a positive emphasis in terms of creating the cultural environment necessary for development (Bernstein, 1971). Acc to Lerner (1964), modernization is the social process of which development is the economic component. Development or modernization denotes a particular kind of social change. Thus, the participation of social science disc iplines in the discussion of development is recognized as necessary and is often being expressed in the social conditions of economic growth or non-economic barriers to economic growth types of formula (Bernstein, 1971). Modernization means the appearance of modes of social life or organization which emerged in Europe from about the seventeenth century onwards and which subsequently became more or less worldwide in their influence (Giddens, 1991). The goals of higher standard of life, freedom, security, social justice are more of the accepted goals of modernism (Srivastava et.al, 1976). Modernization theory states that the economy, social conditions and cultural values of a society are to a large extent structurally and functionally linked and change in relatively predictable ways (Rostow, 1971; Inglehart, 1997; Inglehart and Baker, 2000). Modernity is the attitude to adjusts from ones inner being to the rapidly changing condition of socio-cultural and economic milieu. This attitude implies a scientific and rational world view and inculcates universalistic and secular values. Modernity also implies flexibility of attitude, while traditionalism implies rigidity. Basic belief in the idea of modernity i s that everything is destined to be speeded up, dissolved, displaced, transformed and reshaped. Globalization, the end of the Cold War, ethnic conflicts, and the proliferation of information technologies are some reasons to adopt a new vision to navigate social development. The development towards fully consolidated modernity implies a simultaneous transformation of linked social conditions and values. All societies eventually pass through the same stages of development, moving from traditional agrarian to modern industrial society and from there further to post-industrial or postmodern forms (Kragh and Djusaa, 2006). The goals of higher standard of life, freedom security, social justice are more of the accepted goals of modernism (Srivastava et.al, 1976). Socioeconomic modernization is an underlying factor influencing civic culture and democracy at the level of society, and commitment and classroom egalitarianism at the level of business schools. Peoples general attitudes to change as such are extended to modernism and new technologies in general- the electronic mail, television, in vitro fertilization, new learning and teaching methods, female ordination, males plaiting their hair and wearing earrings or agitation for gay rights. Within the basic assumptions of modernization theory, there is a considerable variety of emphasis on different levels- according to whether conceptual p riority is assigned to personality factors, institutions, cultural orientations or social processes (Bernstein, 1971). It has been seen that in societies with relatively more rural population than urban, there is a lower level of tolerance of modernization and that urban and city dwellers accept modernization more easily. Attitudinal changes favorable to socio-economic modernization can contribute significantly to the development of a national leadership dedicated to removing institutional blocks to economic growth. Basic to the entire process of a countrys development from a traditional agrarian society into a modern market-oriented society, is a striking transformation of outlook and values. The influence of western civilization on china can be seen not only in material, substantive areas such as technology, but also at the conceptual levels, in philosophy and basic values (Yang, 1986). Zabin et al (2009), in their study on adolescent sexual behavior in three Asian cities viz. Hanoi, Sanghai and Taipei found that each of these three cities is undergoing rapid economic development, profound social change and increasing contact with the outside world. These changes may have profound effects on adolescents as they undergo the transition to adulthood and the effects may differ in case of urban and rural population and males and females. It was also reported that traditional Asian values-whether transmitted within the family or by the larger community-could mediate young peoples departure from earlier behaviors. Rindfuss (1991) suggested that many of the transitions to adulthood such as those from single life to marriage, from school to work, and from living in the parental home to independent living-tend to become more varied and also less sharp , or crisp with increased modernization. As modernization consolidates, the notions of citizenship and loyalty with the modern institutions of society grow stronger, creating the foundations for democracy. An important aspect of this change lies in the weakening of the family and in-group loyalties. As the strong ties of the family break down, the weak ties between out-group members gain strength, and relationships of solidarity and trust increasingly begin to develop among non-family and out-group members (Granovetter, 1973; Fukuyama,1999). In an advanced modern society, former strangers have learned to trust each other and commit themselves to cooperation as members of the same individualized culture (Scruton, 2003). The family and in-group values lose importance, citizen values gain in importance, and authoritarianism declines because of the growth of universalistic civic values, making coercion and control obsolete. Therefore, the extension of organic organizations dependes on the civic culture of society, which again d epends on the stage of modernization. In less advanced modern countries, we should thus expect to find a lower ratio of organic to mechanistic organizations due to the influence of a weaker civic culture and the underlying stage of modernization (Kragh and Djursaa, 2006). The Dark Side of Modernization Modernization brought a series of undisputable benefits to people. Lower infant mortality rate, decreased death from starvation, eradication of some of the fatal diseases, equal treatment of people with different backgrounds and incomes, and so on. However, there are a number of dark sides of modernity pointed out by sociologists. Many critics point out psychological and moral hazards of modern life like alienation, feeling of rootlessness, loss of strong bonds and hedonism. Individuals in modern society have become isolated. With the growth of the media and the consumer society, people have become passive conformists, filled with egoistic, solitary obsessions rather than obsessions with solidarity and they dont accept the old, possessive family values. The only bonds in the modern society are the bonds of immediate interest and immediate worth and not of enduring value. Modernization and Social Mobility The long term development of patterns of social mobility has been a major research issue for a long time both in sociology and economics. The main questions have been to what extent social mobility differs between countries at different levels of development or with a different institutional structure, and whether mobility changed during and after industrialization (see, e.g., Ganzeboom, Treiman and Ultee 1991; Erikson and Goldthorpe 1992; Ferrie 2005; Long and Ferrie 2007; Bourdieu, Ferrie and Kesztenbaum 2009; Van Leeuwen and Maas 2010; Hout and DiPrete 2006). These questions are also related to issues of social stratification more generally, and the extent to which these patterns are dependent on economic development (see, e.g., Treiman 1976). Mobility chances depend on the opportunity structure, i.e. the social structure of society, and if industrialization changes the occupational structure it will also affect total mobility. The new economy did not only change mobility patterns via changes of the class structure, but also through changing mechanisms of socioeconomic attainment. The social bottlenecks which act as impediments to development are insufficient attitudinal modernization and a markedly dualistic structure of society. The absence of a sizeable indigeneous middle class, low levels of secondary education and literacy, and inadequate social mobility also constitute important obstacles to raising capacity for long term growth (Adelman and Morris, 2001). Modernization and Religion Attitudes to change may be intimately linked with religious beliefs. The more religious a people are the more conservative they may tend to be and consequently the less favorable may be their attitude towards change, especially towards modernity. Modernity is seen as an iconoclastic and corrupting intrusion upon well-established, age-old values, while it fosters values and practices that tend to incite upheavals and disequilibrium in society. Industrial development follows a coherent pattern of growth, and would in time produce certain uniform social and political structures across different countries and cultures (Fukuyama, 1992). Modernization brings in its wake the diminution of the social significance of religion (Wallis and Bruce, 1992). Studies on Indian population have revealed that changes are taking place in the area of social as well as cultural life and the urban population of Hindus is modernizing its attitudes toward marriage and caste (Prabhu, 1956). Fundamentalism often opposes social differentiation and rationalization. Religious activity also has an impact on peoples attitudes. It has been reported that the more the respondent attends religious services the more traditional gender role and women employment attitudes he/she holds (Vukovic, 2007). To some extent, the revival and radicalization of Islam appears to be a global movement brought on, in part, by a strategic rejection of the apparently secularizing tendencies of modernity (Lechner, 2003). The modern society has indeed become increasingly secular and that this trend would continue; the lack of religiosity in Europe was a glimpse into the future for non-Europeans (Davie, 2000). Modernization, Position of Women and Family Planning Demographic research deploys a notion of culture that links models of change to the acceptability of modern birth control. People in traditional cultures are more fatalistic and leave reproduction to the will of God. Modernization of behavior has led to the constitution of modern families, which are more open to the use of modern contraceptives. The level of education, autonomy of women and consensual companionate marriage is linked to high acceptance of contraception. This idea of free individual choice linked to the language of rights and set in the context of a companionate marriage and a nuclear household, has helped most international family programs. Female education plays a key role in the social developmental approach. Cleland and Wilson (1987) have argued that education lowers fertility mainly by changing womens perceptions, ideas and aspirations rather than by affecting such objective realities as their work opportunities or the cost of children. A large body of Indian and international evidence points to the role of rising female education in lowering fertility. In addition to reducing desired family size, female education is likely to affect the relationship between desired family size and planned number of births. (Dreze and Murthy, 2006). However, several studies have found little evidence of the positive link between womens education and female autonomy (Jeffrey and Jeffrey, 1996; Vlassoff 1996; and Visaria, 1996) India was one of the first countries in the world to introduce a national family planning program in the 1950s. This was followed by a more gentle approach stressing that development is the best contraceptive. It was thought that economic growth would automatically reduce poverty and slow the growth of population. Over time, the focus shifted from economic growth to social development (Dreze and Murthi, 2001) The Role of Gender in Modernization Many researchers have reported of the changes in attitudes towards values beliefs as a result of modernization influences. Studies of Manhardt (1972) found that traditionally men were more concerned with the long-range career objectives, and women were inclined more forwards comfortable working conditions and good interpersonal relations. However, Hakim (1996), in his studies on European population, reported people are increasingly more positive to womens labor market participation. This change in peoples attitudes is usually explained by the raising level of education for women, better possibilities for career development for women, and also the increasing number of families that are dependent on two incomes for their level of living (Sundstrom 2000). A comparative study conducted by Sumer (1998) on the social position, attitudes and identies of younger Turkish and Norwegian women with higher education found out that Turkish and Norwegian differ considerably in terms of social ident ities. Turkish do not perceive gender as a significant social determinant in their lives and do not identify women as a general category whereas Norwegian perceive gender as a significant societal determinant in their lives and identify women as general category. Study conducted by Vukovic (2007) on a sample of 1250 Croatian citizens aged 20+ revealed that there is difference between males and females in all age-groups, in a way that females are more liberal, the difference is largest among the youngest respondents. The youngest female respondents were found to be increasingly dissatisfied with traditional beliefs, while male counterparts very slowly follow that attitudinal shift toward modernity and greater equality. Chia, Chong and Cheng (2001), in their study on relationship of modernization and marriage role attitude among Chinese college students, found a significant sex difference with women holding a more modern value and a more equalitarian attitude toward marriage-role. This more equalitarian marriage role attitude may also characterize Chinese who are more accepting of western values. The Role of Education in Modernization It is commonly held that standards of education determine attitudes towards change and modernization. The more education people have, the more easily they identify with modernity; the less they have, the more negative and suspicious they are of modernity and consequently the more resistant they are to change and modernization. Kragh and Djursaa (2006), in their study comprising 26 countries found that teaching styles in post-industrial societies are more likely to follow the organic model, involving greater empowerment of students and less formal authority. In the business school context, this empowerment is shown to rest on students cultural values of solidarity and social commitment. Educated respondents turn out to be more liberal and egalitarian in their attitudes towards gender roles and womens employment (Vukovic, 2007). Existing research suggests that business school teaching and management in organizations in general tend to enact similar sociocultural values (Senge, 1997; Senge et al, 2000; Hofstede, 2001; Brown and Lauder, 1992; Brown et al, 2003) and it is possible to generalize findings from business schools to other type of organizations. Business schools are important providers of potential managers to companies and both the content of teaching and the attitude to management and cooperation which students acquire during the process of socialization at the institutions, are therefore strategically important for business (Kragh and Djursaa, 2006). Research Objectives To investigate the management students attitude towards modernization with respect to Social Mobility, Position of Women, Family Planning, Marriage and Religion and Superstition. To find out the difference in attitude towards modernization among the female and male management students. Research Hypothesis There is a positive attitude among the management students towards modernization with respect to Social Mobility, Position of Women, Family Planning, Marriage and Religion and Superstition. There is a significant difference in attitude towards modernization among female and male management students. The Sample The Study on which this paper is based was carried out in a well-known institute of management located in the National Capital Region (NCR), Delhi. The institute has been in existence for 17 years and it runs a two year (full time) postgraduate program in business administration. The sample for the study consists of 120 management students studying in their 4th semester (final) of MBA full time programme. Variables N Age 20-27years M=22.8yrs Gender Female 60 Male 60 Parent occupation Business 36 Govt. Service 84 Rural/Urban Rural 13 Urban 107 Religion Hindu 110 Sikh 7 Muslim 2 Others 1 Tools for Data Collection and Analysis: Attitude towards modernization was measured by using Dr. B.M Mathur (1997) Modernization Attitude Scale which consists of 35 items divided into five dimensions: Social Mobility (7 items); Position of Women (7 items); Family Planning (7 items), Marriage (7items) and Religion and Superstition (7 items). Test Retest reliability ranges from .85 to .90. Content validity was judged by 30 judges. The questionnaire was personally administered by the researchers in classrooms after the classes were over. Scoring: Yes answer is given 1 mark for positive question and No answer is given 1 mark for negative question. The higher the score, more is the positive attitude towards modernization. The responses to the questionnaire were keyed in and analyzed using the SPSS (version 12). Results and Discussion (Table 1 here) (Table 2 here) Table 1: Showing the mean, % and SD of the five dimensions of modernization. Variables N Mean Mean as % Std. Deviation Social mobility 120 5.78 82.57% 1.03 Position of women 120 6.35 90.71% .81 Family planning 120 6.26 89.43% .91 Marriage 120 5.39 77% 1.07 Religion and superstition 120 5.25 75% 1.04 Total modernization 120 28.56 81.6% 3.92 Table 2: Showing the t-test of five dimension of modernization in terms of gender. Variable Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Df t-value Sig. Social Mobility Female 60 6.15 .84 118 4.12 ** Male 60 5.41 1.09 Position of Women Female 60 6.58 .61 118 3.12 * Male 60 6.13 .93 Family Planning Female 60 6.31 .72 118 .59 NS Male 60 6.21 1.07 Marriage Female 60 5.61 .96 118 2.32 NS Male 60 5.16 1.15 Religion and and Superstition Female 60 5.3 1.03 118 .52 NS Male 60 5.20 1.07 Modernization Female 60 29.86 2.26 118 3.82 * Male 60 27.26 4.75 ** Significant at .01 level, *Significant at .05 level, NS= Not Significant. Graphical representation of means of female and male students in terms of five dimensions of modernization A perusal at table 1 shows that the means of the five dimensions of modernization are all having high score, which shows that there is a positive attitude towards modernization among the management students. Among the five dimensions, the mean of the Position of Women (M=6.35) was higher than the others dimensions followed by means of Family Planning (M=6.26); Social Mobility (M=5.78); Religion and Superstition (M=5.25) and Marriage (M=5.39). This shows that these management students have a very positive attitude towards the Position of Women emphasizing on the equality of gender rights, status of women upliftment, and provision of education and accepting women at higher positions. In terms of their attitude towards Family Planning, the students consider it an important factor and notion of individual choice within the nuclear family is paramount. Modernization of behavior has also lead to the constitution of modern families, which are more open to the use of modern contraceptives an d believe in the concept of small family means a happy family. With regard to social mobility, the students are totally against caste, the concept of untouchability and have a view that such beliefs are an obstacle in the progress of the society and must be eliminated. The students have shown a positive attitude towards the upliftment of the scheduled caste and tribes. In case of religion and superstition, the students have the opinion that religion and superstition should be based on ones faith and one should not be superstitious. The modernization theorists of the past three decades largely accepted the view of the modern world as a space of shrinking religiosity (Appadurai, 1996). In case of marriage, the sample have the opinion that people should be given freedom to select ones own life partner and they have also indicated a positive attitude towards love marriage and even inter-caste marriage. The findings indicating a positive attitude towards modernization have been supported by many researchers. Acc to Srivastava et.al, (1976), the goals of higher standard of life, freedom security, and social justice are more of the accepted goals of modernism. Family values and teaching styles in business schools are part of the same cultural complex of linked values and norms (Kragh and Djursaa, 2006). Hence, our hypothesis 1 which states that there is a positive attitude among the management students towards modernization with respect to Social Mobility, Position of Women, Family Planning, Marriage and Religion and Superstition, is accepted. A look at table 2 shows the t-value of the five facets of modernization in terms of gender. The overall modernization score shows significant differences among female and male (t- value=3.82) and the mean score of female students (M=29.86) was higher than mean score of male students (M= 27.26). This shows that female management students are having more positive modernization attitude than their male counterparts. There is also a significant difference in female and male scores on two dimensions of modernization viz. Social Mobilty and Position of Women. The t-value of female and male in Social mobility is 4.12 which shows significant at .05 level and mean of female (M=6.15) was higher than mean of male (M=5.41). This indicates that female students have a more positive attitude towards social mobility in terms of eradicating untouchability, caste system and believe in the upliftment of the minority section of people. This result shows that female students are more welfare oriented tow ards the upliftment of society. According to the liberal theory of industrialism, economic development sponsors more mobility and encourages equal opportunities (Dribe, Helgertz and Putte, 2012). The t-value (3.12) shows significant differences between female and male management students in their attitude towards position of women. The mean of female (M=6.58) was higher than mean of male (M= 6.13). This is understandable that female will have higher regards for the position of women in the society. The position of women in society is closely related to family values. This finding shows that female students have higher opinion about the upliftment of the female role and equality in the eyes of society. In the long term, it is seen that that modernization brings systematic, predictable changes in attitudes towards gender roles. Mukherjee (1997), in his study on the ideas and attitudes of students towards modernization, found that female students wished to become economically independent and acquire equal status with males in jobs and houses. The t-value in family planning; marriage and religion and superstition shows no significant differences between females and males; even th ough in terms of Attitudes towards Marriage, the mean of female (M=5.61) is having higher than male (M=5.16). Thus, our hypothesis 2 which states that there is a significant difference in attitude towards modernization among female and male management students, is partially accepted and partially rejected. Conclusion Modernity is the attitude to adjust to the rapidly changing condition of socio-cultural and economic milieu and to break from traditional mode of life. Modernity is one thing towards which every society is inevitably moving, although at different rates of development. The findings of this study show that the attitudes of management students towards the different facets of modernization are positive and they favor development. This could be due to the reason that standards of education determine attitudes towards change and modernization. The more education people have, the more easily they identify with modernity; the less they educated they are, the more negative and suspicious they are of modernity and consequently the more resistant they are to change and modernization. Also, interestingly, female students were found to have a more positive attitude towards overall modernization and also towards the two dimensions of Social Mobility and Position of Women. Female students favor the integration of social classes and do not consider themselves as a weaker section of the society. They want to be stronger; free from being prejudiced and no longer under the domination of male counterparts.

Views on Laura Schlessinger :: essays research papers

Laura Schlessinger Pages 34-37 The Facts 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What is the first delusion mentioned by Schlessinger? What importance does it have to the main point of the essay? The first delusion that she stated was that you can tell if something is going to happen, by checking it against a checklist. Throughout the essay she shows how some of the people don’t fit into the category. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schlessinger rejects the notion that a single cause, such as being picked on in school, can turn a teen into a murderer. She suggests a much simpler case. What is it? Schlessinger suggests that some people are evil, and that is why you can’t make a checklist for it. 3. What, according to the author, are the attractions of evil? IN other words, why are people drawn to it so easily? The main reason that the author suggests is that you get results right away. Also you Get the sensation that you are in control and have the power. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One might think that evil would be shunned and avoided, but not so. In fact, according to Schlessinger, how is evil often treated? Laura says that evil is either condoned or even rewarded by our general public in society. 5. What are some of the shortcomings of our criminal justice system, according to the author? What other social systems are no better? The author says that the justice system is not hard enough on the kids. She also says that parents look over things too much. Page 2 The Strategies. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In paragraph 5, what question does the author pose? How does she answer the question? The author poses the question by saying if everyone is evil then why aren’t their more people killing each other. She answers this question by stating while all the kids aren’t killing everyone there is more swearing, stealing, and early age sexual acts. So while she states that they aren’t all murderers she states that they are a lot worse then before. The Issues 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assigning blame for teenage violence is a complicated issue, made murky by society’s contradictory opinions. Where do you lay the blame for the seemingly increasing amount of teenage violence in out country? I think that while there is an increase in the murders that are being committed, I don’t think that it is at a point where they should be getting so much media attention.

Marvin Bower

The late Marvin Bower, who transformed McKinsey & Co. into one of the best management consulting firms in the world, said that the â€Å"ability to inspire and require workers to be their best is the greatest resource of any business, and that the rewards for doing so include growth for the business itself, and growth in competitive position, size, and profits† (Edersheim, 2004, p. 65). Much literature about theories of motivation and work relate to the subject of inspiring employees to do their best (Gagne and Deci, 2005; Ambrose and Kulik, 1999). This paper explores how managers can use theories of motivating employees to make the workplace better, more profitable, and efficient. A manager’s job is to get things done through their employees, so knowing how to motivate employees is always a challenge that has never been easy. Many changes driven by worldwide social and economic forces are happening at the workplace. The end of the Cold War in the early 1990s and the globalization of businesses are transforming corporations – public and private, large and small – in a radical way (Stiglitz, 2002). Global competition and the rise of democracy are pressuring companies to be more competitive, agile, and lean, changing the nature of organizational structures and the relationships between managers and workers (Micklethwait & Wooldridge, 2000). Another change agent is the progress of information and communications technology, especially the Internet and mobile computing, which has altered the nature of communication within the organization and the quality of the workforce. Workers are more educated and knowledgeable, able to gain quick access to information and perform knowledge-based tasks in an atmosphere of teamwork and collaboration (Heerwagen, Kelly, & Kampshroer, 2005). As the workplace structure and the workers themselves change, management faces the problem posed by Gerstner (2002) after a successful ten-year effort to bring IBM Corporation out of a crisis: -How do you pull the levers of motivation to change the attitudes, behavior, and thinking of a population? Of course, different people are motivated by different things. Some by money. Some by advancement. Some by recognition. For some, the most effective motivation is fear – or anger. For others, that doesn’t (sic) work; it’s learning, or the opportunity to make an impact, to see their efforts produce concrete results. Most people can be roused by the threat of extinction. And most can be inspired by a compelling vision of the future. Over the past ten years, I’ve pulled most of those levers (p. 203). Effectively changing the attitudes, behavior, and thinking of workers demands that a manager knows what levers of motivation to pull in the first place. Much research has been done to identify empirically-proven theories and methods that managers can use to motivate their employees (Gagne and Deci, 2005, p. 333). Maslow proposed that a person is motivated by satisfying five levels of human needs: (1) physiological (hunger and thirst); (2) safety (bodily); (3) social (friendship and affiliation); (4) esteem (for oneself and others); and (5) self-actualization (growth and realization of potential) (Chapman, 2004a). Herzberg stated that work satisfaction results from the presence of hygiene factors like salary, status, working conditions, supervisor and management, security, relationship with subordinates, and policies, and motivational factors like achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and personal growth. A worker will be satisfied if the motivation factors are met (Chapman, 2004c). According to Adams’s Equity Theory, what workers put into their work (inputs) is fairly balanced with what they expect to get out of it (outputs). Motivation will get the most out of employee inputs like personal effort and hard work by making the employee see it balanced by outputs (salary, benefits, and intangibles like praise and achievement) (Chapman, 2004b). Vroom’s Expectancy Theory states that three factors should be present for motivation to take place: valence (value placed on the expected reward), expectancy (belief that efforts are linked to performance), and instrumentality (belief that performance is related to rewards). Knowing each employee’s valence and expectancy, and showing the instrumentality between the two, will help the manager trigger the motivation of the employee. Porter and Lawler built on Vroom’s theory by proposing a model of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, which states that people are intrinsically motivated if they do something they find interesting and from which they derive satisfaction, and that people are extrinsically motivated if they do the activity because they are satisfied with the tangible or verbal rewards attached (Gagne and Deci, 2005, p. 331). Schwab (1985) equates this with Herzberg’s motivation (intrinsic) and hygiene (extrinsic) factors but contemporary authors claim that it is closer to Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (Ambrose and Kulik, 1999, p. 257). All these theories may be said to be based on Skinner’s reinforcement theory, which states that behavior can be shaped, changed or maintained through the use of positive and negative reinforcement, implying that a person can behave in a certain way through the use of motivational levers. Motivation can be used to improve employee performance and productivity. As Bruce and Pepitone (1999, pp. 38-42) point out, employees can be motivated to do their work better, that is, improve their work performance, and to work more efficiently and more effectively, that is, improve their productivity. One way is to share information (like profit and loss or quality of service) on how your department is doing in comparison with others in or outside the company. Asking employees to help you solve a problem appeals to their need for self-actualization (Maslow) and helps them set high personal standards of growth and potential. You may motivate them with bonuses (Vroom’s rewards or Adams’s outputs) they will get if performance improves.   Use the tools depending on what you think your employees need. This first step can make your employees want to improve their performance and be more productive. Getting employees warmed up is good, but it is not enough. After getting them initially motivated, the manager has to help each one establish and achieve higher goals. Motivation can be a useful tool in goal-setting by pointing out targets that will bring employees out of their comfort zones to attain personal growth. Hiam (1999, pp. 213-216), warning us against confusing goal-setting sessions with employee manipulation, states that the motivational key is to make employee realize that aiming for a higher goal is good for different reasons, presenting both tangible (pay raise and bonus) and intangible (self-esteem and personal growth) rewards. Some employees are motivated by financial rewards, but many are equally motivated by seeing that their work is meaningful (Hiam, 1999, p. 222). In discussing the rewards of work, Bruce and Pepitone (1999, p.53) state that if employees are properly motivated and helped by their managers to aim for higher goals and succeed in achieving it, employees will feel that the work they do is fun and enjoyable, making it part of the reward itself that they are willing to share with the organization.   In effect, work becomes its own reward. Heller (1998, p.43) adds that motivation is a useful tool not only when setting higher work performance goals but in assessing the success or failure of employee efforts. Employee evaluation and assessment can be a forum for further motivation in two areas: to encourage the employee to build on strengths and accomplishments, leading the way for higher levels of future performance, or for helping the employee overcome personal weaknesses that hamper job performance. Through the use of positive reinforcement (praise and encouragement for success and achievement) and negative reinforcement (suggestions for improvement or behavioral change), managers can sustain organizational morale and help employees overcome falling enthusiasm or a lack of personal ambition. Hiam (1999, p. 122) notes that positive feedback (â€Å"You can do it because you’re good enough †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) is more motivating than negative feedback (â€Å"Why can’t you do something that others can?†) and encourages managers to use positive reinforcement to build up employee motivation and morale, although negative reinforcement (not the same as negative feedback) may be helpful for disciplining or correcting employees. Boosting self-confidence is one of the best ways to maintain high levels of motivation in employees (Bruce & Pepitone, 1999, p. 114). The reason is that people grow in confidence when they see that someone, especially one in a position of authority, believes in them. This creates expectations that, as we learn from Vroom and Porter, motivate people. Therefore, a manager who believes in his employees can sustain high levels of motivation. Doing the opposite (showing lack of confidence and trust) can be fatal for the organization and the career of a manager whose task is to motivate and, therefore, trust and believe in his employees. It is a scientifically-proven fact that men and women are different (Ridley, 1999). They differ also in their motivation styles. Several studies (Su and Bradberry, 2004; Marano, 2003; Sachs, 1995) show how women and men differ (for example, women are more intuitive and perceptive, while men are more systematic and rules-based) in their communication and social skills, vital for the process of motivation. While men find it easier to motivate using the basic needs and tangible rewards, and women may be better at using higher level needs and intangible factors, all good managers, regardless of gender, should combine the ability to motivate using all the tools available (Gerstner, 2002; Sachs, 1995). References Ambrose, M. L. & Kulik, C. T. (1999). Old friends, new faces: motivation research in the 1990s.   Journal of Management. 25, 231-292. Bruce, A. and Pepitone, J. (1999).   Motivating Employees.   New York: McGraw-Hill. Chapman, A.   (2004a).   Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.   Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm Chapman, A. (2004b).   Adams’ Equity Theory. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from   http://www.businessballs.com/adamsequitytheory.htm Chapman, A.   (2004c).   Frederick Herzberg’s Motivational Theory. Retrieved November 11, 2005, from http://www.businessballs.com/herzberg.htm Edersheim, E. H.   (2004).   McKinsey’s Marvin Bower.   Vision, Leadership, and the Creation of Management Consulting.   (pp. 41-65).   New Jersey: John Wiley. Gagne, M. and Deci, E.L. (2005).   Self-determination theory and work motivation.   Journal of Organizational Behavior.   26, 331-362. Retrieved November Gerstner, L. V. Jr. (2002).   Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance?   (p. 203). New York: HarperCollins. Heerwagen, J., Kelly, K., and Kampshroer, K. (2005).   The Changing Nature of Organizations, Work, and Workplace. National Institute of Building Sciences.   Retrieved November 12, 2005, from http://www.wbdg.org/design/chngorgwork.php Heller, R. (1998).   Essential Managers: Motivating People. (1st American ed.)   D. Tombesi-Walton (Ed.). New York: DK. Hiam, A. (1999).   Streetwise Motivating and Rewarding Employees.   Holbrook, MA: Adams. Marano, H. E. (July-August 2003). The New Sex Scorecard. Psychology Today.   Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-2832.html Micklethwait, J. and Wooldridge, A.   (2000).   A Future Perfect.   The Challenge and Hidden Promise of Globalization. (pp. 122-139). New York: Crown. Ridley, M. (1999).   Genome, The autobiography of a species in 23 chapters. (pp. 216-218). New York: HarperCollins. Sachs, M. (1995). Men and women communication styles. Retrieved November 14, 2005, from http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5280.html Schwab, D. P. (1985).   Motivation in Organizations.   In L. R. Bittel and J. E. Ramsey (Eds.), Handbook for Professional Managers. (p. 585).   New York: McGraw-Hill. Stiglitz, J. E.   (2002).   Globalization and its Discontents.   (pp. 21-22). London: Penguin. Su, L. D. and Bradberry, T. (2004).   EQ and Gender: Women Feel Smarter.   Retrieved November 15, 2005, from   https://www.talentsmart.com/media/uploads/EQ_and_Gender.pdf Wikipedia (2005).   Retrieved November 12, 2005, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/   

Lesbians as Represented in Mainstream Television Essay

Lesbian images have been entering into mainstream media more and more. Some argue that this is a sign of a wider acceptance of lesbianism in Western culture. In this paper, two mainstream television programs, Grey’s Anatomy and Law and Order: SVU, will be looked at to assess the nature of lesbian images. It will be argued that if and when lesbians are portrayed in mainstream television they are highly feminized, desexualized, and their lives are almost always framed in ways that appeal to heterocentric norms. Thus, mass media almost always fails to provide the viewer with an accurate and unbiased perception of lesbianism or homosexuality in a broader sense. Grey’s Anatomy has emerged onto the lesbian scene in the last couple of years by developing Callie Torres, a beautiful, vivacious, Latino woman, into a lesbian in the fifth season. A friendship develops between her and Erica Hahn, a successful, ‘sassy’, and appealing newcomer, and it gradually progresses into something more until finally the two share a kiss. Before the romance can flourish, Torres wrestles with her sexuality, her fears, and her lack of understanding of lesbianism. Soon after the relationship establishes itself, Hahn unexpectedly breaks up with Torres and leaves the show. Typical†¦ or is it? A season later, Arizona Robbins, a semi-regular of the show, comes into focus when she blatantly hits on Torres. Shortly after, the two start to date and later find themselves in a committed relationship. The question is how good a job does the show do of accurately portraying lesbians? To start, all three of the women mentioned above are attractive and feminine. All three have long flowing hair – always nicely styled and maintained – and pretty faces carefully done up with light make-up. This is what Ann Ciasullo refers to as â€Å"sanitizing of the lesbian through her feminizing† (599). In other words, Grey’s Anatomy offers up an image of lesbians that is not too homosexual for the heterosexual audience. While it could be argued that such representations help to combat the rigid stereotypes of lesbians as ugly, butch feminists, the very widespread nature of the ‘femme’ image in media indicates something more is going on (Tamsin). The book Out of Focus, suggests that such feminine representations act to lower the threat of lesbianism by reassuring viewers that such (beautiful and feminine) women can or must actually be heterosexual (Kath Davies). In fact, in Grey’s Anatomy, as in many television programs, the ‘butch’ lesbian is completely absent. All of this suggests that the lesbian chic of the ‘90s is far from dead (Tamsin). Grey’s is well known for its scandalous call room sex scenes. Characters, heterosexual characters that is, escape to hidden corners of the hospital where they argue, make up, and make love on a regular basis. This is interesting because such scenes are practically nonexistent between Torres and Hahn or later Torres and Robbins. In fact, physical contact of any kind is somewhat limited between Torres and Robbins. An example of this can be seen in Season five episode 13 when Robbins` patient dies during surgery. When she gets home to see Torres has planned a surprise birthday party for her she bursts into tears overcome by her grief. The pair leaves the room and at this point you would expect a comforting hug, a loving embrace, or a reassuring kiss on the cheek from any reasonably intimate couple or from any other couple on the show for that matter, but not in this case. Torres tells Robbins that she will explain the situation to their friends and at that Robbins leaves. Additionally, sex scenes between Torres and Robbins are few and far between; those that exist are cut short by interruption or not shown at all. The latter is evidenced in Season five episode 11 when the viewer is shown only the aftermath – them lying in bed together, presumably after making love, eating pizza. It is a cute scene but not a sexual scene. This is a familiar pattern found in most television programs or movies featuring lesbian couples and just one way lesbians are desexualized (Ciasullo). A notable exception to this pattern is The L Word, but it will not be the focus of this paper. Since the beginning of their relationship Callie and Arizona have slept together three times. Three times in an entire season and for a relationship in its beginning stages is incredibly low by Grey’s standards (or anyone’s standards really). One of these scenes is the ‘pizza scene’ previously mentioned. In another â€Å"sex† scene, Lexi Grey walks in on the two in the shower and quickly walks out; the viewer sees what Lexi sees and nothing more. The final scene implies the two may have sex, but it is not pursued any further. Considering the show develops long, sensual sex scenes between its heterosexual characters, following them from start to finish, the unwillingness to do the same for its lesbian characters is problematic. This is not an isolated phenomenon. The pattern of desexualization is evident not just in television but also in movies as noted by Ciasullo and Yvonne Tasker in her book Working Girls (Ciasullo; Tasker). Another problem with the depiction of Torres and Robbins’ relationship is that it is often framed by the heterosexual constructs of marriage and reproduction. Tasker discusses this issue noting that by explaining lesbianism within a heterosexual context the (heterosexual) audience is assured that lesbians are normal (by heterosexual standards) (Tasker). Such a practice adheres to conventional social norms while ignoring the differing reality of lesbian’s lives. After Torres’ father finally accepts her lesbianism his first question to her addresses the issue of marriage and children. She assures him that she will put on a â€Å"big white dress and dance down the aisle† if Arizona wants to spend the rest of her life with her. Another example takes place in season six episode three, when Torres talks about being married and having a house, kids and a pet dog with Robbins. This description perpetuates heterocentric beliefs that heterosexual activities and institutions are better than homosexual ones simply because it gives no thought to the possibility that things could be different within homosexual relationships. Furthermore, this effort to depict lesbian couples as ‘normal’ by tying them to conventional social norms suggests that homosexual practices are not normal and as such fails to challenge heterocentrism. Law and Order: Special Victims Unit (SVU) is another show with some problematic representations. In over 11 seasons, it has aired a total of five gay-centred storylines and one lesbian specific episode. This discrepancy seems to reflect the idea touched on in Out of Focus that â€Å"coverage of ‘homosexuality’ actually refers to gay men† (Kath Davies 91). A recent episode entitled PC features Kathy Griffin as Babs Duffy, a rude, abrasive, man-hating lesbian activist. First of all, the stereotyping evident in Griffin’s character is troublesome because it feeds into the negative view of lesbians. Visibility is important, but the cost of portraying lesbians in such a light is possibly greater than or as great as not showing them at all. Furthermore, this particular episode is strewn with negative or inaccurate images of lesbians. The episode begins with the discovery of a woman who has been left for dead in an abandoned building. She has been raped and beaten and later dies in the hospital. It is not too long before the viewer finds out from Babs Duffy that the victim was a lesbian. Duffy makes a dramatic entrance into the detectives’ office ordering for the capture of the murderer whom she alleges is targeting lesbians. The investigation commences with a visit to the victim, now known as Alyssa’s, girlfriend. As the episode progresses, you notice something striking – all the main lesbian characters are conventionally attractive, feminine women. More than that though, any lesbian character who is questioned and thus comes into the focus of the camera, is also feminine and pretty. The few butch lesbians in the episode are in the background and barely noticeable. The absence of the butch lesbian is telling. Ciasullo notes that â€Å"without the signifier of the butch, the femme’s lesbianism disappears†¦ † (Ciasullo 599). Thus, by eliminating the butch lesbian from the forefront, Law and Order: SVU effectively downplays the lesbianism of the episode. There is, however, one exception – the victim’s girlfriend Sharon, but even here there are issues with her representation as a butch lesbian. The fact that the show chose to make her ‘butch’ is interesting because they also make her a working class, aggressive, even violent, woman. This in effect vilifies the butch lesbian. Sharon even becomes the main suspect at one point because of her temper, and while it is important to shed light on the issue of domestic violence in lesbian relationships the choice to make Sharon, who is butch, into the abuser is not by accident. Ann Ciasullo talks about how presenting butch lesbians in this negative way makes butches into the â€Å"’oppressor,’†¦ the ‘bad’ lesbian† (Ciasullo 600). Further still, her status as a bouncer (and thus as a member of the working class) adds to her mainstream undesirability (Ciasullo). Moreover, even though Sharon is presented as a butch or as Law and Order puts it an â€Å"aggressive,† she is simultaneously portrayed as somewhat feminine. In the first scene that we are introduced to Sharon, her long hair is pulled back into a loose ponytail and she wraps herself up in her long feminine sweater. She is not wearing any noticeable makeup but she is conventionally pretty. After this initial introduction she is likely not yet labelled as a butch by the viewer. It is not until later when she appears in a plaid shirt and leather jacket that it becomes evident that she is butch. It seems butch images are permitted as long as they’re not too butch and as long as the butch character is not framed in a positive way that could be make her desirable. Perhaps the best example of how lesbians are desexualized in Law and Order is in a scene between Babs and Olivia Benson, the female nvestigator. In the initial taping of this scene Babs kisses Olivia, but the kiss doesn’t make it past the cutting room floor. Even worse, the editing is atrocious. It cuts awkwardly from Babs leaning in to Olivia proclaiming that she is straight and something is noticeably missing. The kiss may not be necessary to the plot, but to sacrifice quality in order to remove it demonstrates how fearful t he media are of lesbian sexuality. Further evidence lies in the fact that a kiss between Babs and Elliot Stabler (the male investigator) that happens at the end of the episode remains untouched. However, this revelation, that Babs isn’t actually a lesbian, has a lot of problems on its own. The discovering that Bab’s has a boyfriend, plays on the â€Å"I know she’s a lesbian but†¦ † scenario so often found in mainstream media. This idea presents the viewer with the possibility that the lesbian can always become straight or as Ciasullo puts it â€Å"’unbecome’ lesbian† (Ciasullo 592). This places the heterosexual audience in a more comfortable position where they can entertain the idea that the attractive lesbians in the show may actually be straight. This issue comes up once again when the suspected murderer/rapist is in interrogation. Olivia pretends she is a lesbian in order to get a confession out of him: Olivia: â€Å"You know how to correct us†¦ you’ve got everything you need to make me a real woman right between your legs –† Suspect: â€Å"and you’d love it just like those other two [victims] did – every moment of it† While this scene may be laid out this way specifically to show the demented thinking of the rapist/murderer, the notion that a lesbian can be â€Å"corrected† or made straight as well the idea that rape victims enjoy being raped are never addressed and corrected. The audience is never informed about how inaccurate these views are. With all this said, the homosexual viewer tends to be somewhat accepting of the images in Grey’s and Law and Order, because as Clare Whatling puts it â€Å"we’re [the lesbian population] so starved, we go see anything because something is better than nothing† (86). Thus, because of the lack of representation, lesbians are more willing to accept inaccurate portrayals. This is troublesome because such images can potentially be detrimental to lesbian’s self perceptions and they’re all the more vulnerable because of the relative disparity of lesbianism in mainstream culture. In conclusion, lesbianism in mainstream television is poorly and inaccurately represented. While shows like Grey’s Anatomy and Law and Order: SVU, have taken steps towards representing lesbians in mainstream media, we have to be careful to assess how big these steps really are. There are several issues with the representations of lesbians in these shows, some of which are addressed in this paper, others which have been left untouched. Thus, there is still a long way to go and many hurdles to surmount before lesbians can be done justice in mainstream media.